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1It is still controversial whether we are fundamentally generous or selfish and whether these tendencies are shaped by
2our genes or environment.
3Some evidence points to humans being born cooperative. At later stages in life we routinely work together to reach goals
4and help out in times of need.
5Yet instances of selfish behavior are also plenty. One recent study tested people’s willingness to set aside selfish
6interests to reach a greater good. It found that being selfish was more advantageous than cooperating. The benefit may
7be short-lived, however. Another study showed that players who cooperated did better in the long run.
8It seems that human nature supports both pro-social and selfish traits (FE). Genetic studies have made some progress
9toward identifying their biological roots. By comparing identical twins, who share nearly 100 percent of their genes,
10and non-identical twins, who share about half, researchers have found overwhelming evidence for genetic effects on
11behaviors. In these twin studies, identical and non-identical twins are asked, for example, to split a sum of money with
12a peer. Such studies often also rely on careful psychological assessments and DNA analysis.
13Other work highlights specific genes as key players. My colleagues and I recently identified a gene linked to altruistic
14(利他的) behavior and found that a particular variant of it was associated with more selfish behavior in preschoolers.
15According to evolutionary scientists, cooperative behavior may have evolved first among relatives to promote the
16continuation of their genetic line. As communities diversified, mutual support could have broadened to include
17individuals not linked by blood. Another possibility is that humans cooperate to gain some advantage, such as boosting
18reputation. Finally, evolutionary processes take place at the group level. Groups of highly cooperative individuals have
19higher chances of survival because they can work together to reach goals that are unattainable to less cooperative
20groups.
21Yet almost no behavior is entirely genetic, even among identical twins. Culture, schooling and parenting are important
22determinants of cooperation. Thus, the degree to which we act cooperatively or selfishly is unique to each individual
23and depends on a variety of genetic and environmental influences.
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